Influenza aviar H5N1. ¿Debemos preocuparnos?

Desde la segunda mitad de 2022 se ha reportado un aumento de casos de influenza en aves migratorias en Latinoamérica. Los virus influenza A y B son los principales agentes asociados a influenza estacional epidémica en humanos. Los virus influenza A circulan no solo en humanos sino también en animales, incluyendo aves migratorias. El intercambio de segmentos de ARN genómico entre dos virus del mismo tipo aumenta la diversidad de los subtipos circulantes e incluso puede facilitar la generación de progenie viral potencialmente pandémica. La naturaleza zoonótica del virus influenza A puede generar infecciones en humanos con virus de origen animal. El virus influenza A de origen aviar ha ocasionado transmisiones en humanos, incluyendo casos graves y muertes, siendo la influenza A H5N1 la más destacada. Es importante tomar medidas de prevención y control en caso de aumento de casos de influenza en aves migratorias para prevenir posibles pandemias en Chile y el mundo.

Since the second half of 2022, an increase in influenza cases in migratory birds has been reported in Latin America. Influenza A and B viruses are the main agents associated with seasonal epidemic influenza in humans. Influenza A viruses circulate not only in humans but also in animals, including migratory birds. The exchange of genomic RNA segments among two viruses increases the diversity of circulating subtypes and may even facilitate the generation of potentially pandemic viral progeny. The zoonotic nature of influenza A virus can generate infections in humans with animal-origin viruses. Avian-origin influenza A virus has caused transmissions in humans, including severe cases and deaths, with influenza A H5N1 being the most prominent. It is important to take preventive and control measures in case of an increase in influenza cases in migratory birds to prevent possible pandemics in Chile and the world.

Tudo pela hora da morte! História, epidemias e desigualdades / Everything for an arm and a leg! History, epidemics, and inequalities

Resumo Assentado na interlocução entre os campos da História e da Saúde Coletiva e provocado pela historicidade do tempo presente, este artigo propõe avanços epistêmicos na discussão sobre o término das epidemias. Para tanto, se vale de operação historiográfica em vasto corpo documental, para apontar os impactos decorrentes da Gripe Espanhola de 1918 em Botucatu, cidade do interior paulista, na perspectiva do aprofundamento das desigualdades presentes nesta localidade nas décadas subsequentes à epidemia. Conclui apontando que, para além dos efeitos imediatos provocados pelo fenômeno epidêmico, ao arrefecer na dimensão biológica, a epidemia de Gripe Espanhola seguiu seu curso, alterando condicionantes sociais e culturais, bem como incidindo sobre estruturas sócio-históricas e em nossa corporeidade, tornando-se acontecimento histórico de longa duração. Desta forma, pode-se depreender que a compreensão das forças históricas que operam nos avanços e recuos em Saúde Coletiva podem alavancar enfrentamentos concretos às iniquidades, junto à retomada de um projeto civilizatório de transformação social no país, assentado na democracia, na justiça social e na defesa radical da vida.

Abstract Based on the dialogue between the fields of History and Public Health and provoked by the historicity of the present time, this article proposes epistemic advances in the discussion about the end of epidemics. To that end, it uses a historiographical operation in a vast body of documents, to point out the impacts resulting from the Spanish Flu of 1918 in Botucatu, a city in the interior of São Paulo, from the perspective of the deepening of inequalities in this locality in the decades following the epidemic. It concludes by pointing out that, in addition to the immediate effects caused by the epidemic phenomenon, when the Spanish Flu epidemic cooled down in the biological dimension, it followed its course, altering social and cultural conditions and affecting socio-historical structures and our corporeality, becoming a long-term historical event. Thus, we can infer that understanding the historical forces that operate in the advances and setbacks in Public Health can leverage concrete confrontations with inequities, along with the resumption of a civilizing project of social transformation in the country, based on democracy, social justice, and the radical defense of life.

Rastros epidêmicos nas fímbrias da dor: a memória da gripe espanhola na perspectiva da história local, Botucatu (SP), 1918 / Traces of epidemics in the fringes of pain: memory of Spanish flu from a local history perspective, Botucatu (São Paulo state), 1918

Resumo O artigo perscruta sob a perspectiva da história local de que forma a memória do sofrimento que cercou a epidemia de gripe espanhola de 1918 em Botucatu (interior paulista) foi reconvocada, tensionada e transmutada ao longo do processo histórico, produzindo representações em estratégias e práticas, e apreensões como constituintes de uma realidade social que produz sentidos. Para essa operação historiográfica, coligiram-se vestígios históricos em diversos arquivos botucatuenses, entre setembro e outubro de 2021, buscando desvelar processos históricos aglutinados e depositados entre as fibras e fímbrias sociais e que, sob afecção da temporalidade, se movimentam, se reelaboram e trazem à tona a inefável marca da gripe espanhola.

Abstract This article takes a local history perspective to scrutinize how the memory of suffering that surrounded the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918 in Botucatu, São Paulo state, has been evoked, challenged, and transmuted over time, producing representations in strategies and practices, and understandings that end up constituting a meaning-making social reality. In this historiographic endeavor, historical vestiges were brought together from a variety of the city's archives between September and October 2021 in a bid to reveal the historical processes that were accreted and deposited in the social fabric and fibers, and which, under the processes of time, were changed and reworked, bringing forth the ineffable mark of Spanish flu.

Constantin von Economo´s 90th death anniversary / O 90º aniversário da morte de Constantin von Economo

ABSTRACT The year of 2021 marks 90 year since the death of the neuroscientist Constantin von Economo, whose research in various areas was extremely relevant for the field of neurology. He described lethargic epidemic encephalitis, published an atlas of the cytoarchitecture of the human cerebral cortex, and conducted multiple studies in neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and clinical neurology. Von Economo's genius extended into other nonmedical fields such as aeronautics, and he had renowned artistic skills.

RESUMO O ano de 2021 marca o 90° aniversário da morte do neurocientista Constantin von Economo, ou Constantin Freiherr (Barão) von Economo. Von Economo realizou várias pesquisas de grande relevo na área da neurologia, com a descrição da encefalite letárgica epidêmica, a publicação do atlas sobre a citoarquitetura do córtex cerebral humano, além dos seus múltiplos estudos em neuroanatomia, neurofisiologia, bem como na neurologia clínica. A genialidade de von Economo se estendeu para outras áreas não médicas, com o seu grande interesse em aeronáutica, como piloto de avião, além dos seus reconhecidos dotes artísticos.

A gripe espanhola pela lente da história local: arquivos, memória e mitos de origem em Botucatu, SP, Brasil, 1918* / The spanish flu through the lens of local history: archives, memory and origin myths in Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil, 1918 / La gripe española bajo la perspectiva de la historia local: archivos, memoria y mitos de origen en Botucatu, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil, 1918

Considerando que a lógica da investigação histórica assenta-se no desenvolvimento da pesquisa empírica, este trabalho discorre sobre desafios na construção de história local sobre a epidemia de gripe espanhola em Botucatu (São Paulo), diante de acervos dispersos, fragmentados, sem tratamento arquivístico e com materialidade comprometida. Discute os lugares produtores da memória e como a seleção e a articulação do passado refletem o que se pretende preservar em torno de discursos e representações locais pelos aparelhos de poder. Flagra, nesse jogo dialético entre o passado que não cessou, mas que se presentifica no poder dos arquivos e da memória coletiva, as forças sociais que atuaram na assistência institucionalizada em Botucatu, desconstruindo mitos de origem, contextualizando singularidades, historicizando iniquidades e capturando representações e expectativas sobre a ordem da cidade e a saúde do corpo, nesse espaço-tempo.(AU)

Considering that the logic of historical investigation is grounded on the development of empirical research, this study approaches challenges in the construction of local history about the spanish flu pandemic in the city of Botucatu, State of São Paulo, in view of scattered and fragmented collections without archival care and with damaged materiality. The study discusses memory-producing places and shows how the selection and articulation of the past reflect what one intends to preserve around local discourses and representations by power apparatuses. It captures, in a dialectic game involving the past that has not ceased to exist and is brought to the present in the power of archives and collective memory, the social forces that acted in institutionalized care at Botucatu. Thus, it deconstructs origin myths, contextualizes singularities, historicizes inequities, and captures representations and expectations about the city's order and the body's health, in this space-time.(AU)

Considerando que la lógica de la investigación histórica se asienta en el desarrollo de la investigación empírica, este trabajo trata sobre desafíos en la construcción de la historia local sobre la epidemia de gripe española en Botucatu - São Paulo-, ante acervos dispersos, fragmentados, sin tratamiento archivístico y con materialidad comprometida. Discute los lugares productores de la memoria y cómo la selección y la articulación del pasado reflejan lo que se pretende preservar alrededor de discursos y representaciones locales por los aparatos de poder. Pone en evidencia, en este juego dialéctico en el paso que no cesó, pero que se hace presente en el poder de los archivos y de la memoria colectiva, las fuerzas sociales que actuaron en la asistencia institucionalizada en Botucatu - Estado de São Paulo, deconstruyendo mitos de origen, contextualizando singularidades, registrando históricamente iniquidades y capturando representaciones y expectativas sobre el orden de la ciudad y la salud del cuerpo, en ese espacio-tiempo.(AU)

Análisis histórico epidemiológico de la pandemia de gripa de 1918-1919 en Boyacá, un siglo después / Historical and Epidemiological Analysis of the Pandemic Flu of 1918-1919 in Boyaca a Century Later / Análise histórica epidemiológica da pandemia de gripe de 1918-1919 em Boyacá, um século depois

Resumen Introducción : la gripa que ocurrió entre 1918-1919 causó la mayor mortalidad en la historia de las pandemias, se estima que 50 millones de personas fallecieron. Se realizó un estudio histórico-epidemiológico a partir de fuentes documentales contrastadas con un análisis estadístico de 142963 registros de defunción consignados en los libros parroquiales de 94 municipios de Boyacá y los censos de los años 1912, 1918 y 1928. Desarrollo : a partir de las fuentes primarias obtenidas, se reconstruye la realidad socio-sanitaria de Boyacá y el desarrollo cronológico de la pandemia en el departamento. La gripa era conocida en Boyacá antes de la pandemia. Durante el periodo pandémico (1918-1919) se encontraron 20102 decesos en los libros parroquiales, 3305 registrados como gripa, de los cuales el 80.9 % ocurrieron en los últimos 3 meses de 1918, siendo los menores de 4 años el grupo poblacional más afectado. Conclusiones : después de la pandemia, la gripa se hace endémica en Boyacá. En el periodo pandémico, la tasa promedio de mortalidad en los municipios ubicados sobre los 2000 msnm es tres veces mayor a aquellos que se encuentran por debajo de esta altura. Las condiciones de pobreza y hacinamiento acentuaron la letalidad de la pandemia, por lo que fueron ineficientes las acciones de las direcciones de higiene para enfrentarla. Las juntas de socorros y la Junta Patriótica de Sanidad son las únicas que realizaron acciones efectivas.

Abstract Introduction : The flu of 1918-1919 caused the highest mortality in the history of pandemics; there is an estimate that 50 million people died. We conducted a historical-epidemiological study from documentary sources, contrasted with a statistical analysis of 142,963 deaths recorded in the church books of 94 municipalities of Boyaca and the census of the years 1912, 1918 and 1928. Development : From the historical records consulted, we reconstructed the social health reality of Boyaca, as well as the chronological development of the pandemic. Boyaca knew the flu before the pandemic (1918-1919). During it, the church books recorded 20,102 deaths; the flu was responsible for 3,305. Of those cases, 80.9 % occurred in the last three months of 1918; the most affected population were children of less than four years of age. Conclusions : After the pandemic, the flu became endemic in Boyaca. In the pandemic period, the average mortality rate in municipalities located above 2000 MASL was three times higher than those below this height. The conditions of poverty and overcrowding accentuated the lethality of the pandemic; the hygiene directives to face them were inefficient. The relief and the Patriotic Health Board were the only ones that carried out effective actions.

Resumo Introdução : a gripe de 1918-1919 causou a maior mortalidade na história das pandemias, estima-se que 50 milhões de pessoas faleceram. Se realizou um estudo histórico-epidemiológico a partir de fontes documentais contrastadas com uma análise estatística de 142.963 atestados de óbito consignados nos livros paroquiais de 94 municípios de Boyacá e os censos dos anos 1912, 1918 e 1928. Desenvolvimento : a partir das fontes primárias obtidas, se reconstrói a realidade socio sanitária de Boyacá e o desenvolvimento cronológico da pandemia no departamento. A gripe era conhecida em Boyacá antes da pandemia. Durante o período pandémico (1918-1919) se encontraram 20 102 decessos nos livros paroquiais, 3.305 registrados como gripe, dos quais o 80. 9% ocorreram nos últimos 3 meses de 1918, sendo os menores de 4 anos, o grupo populacional mais afetado. Conclusões : depois da pandemia, a gripe se faz endémica em Boyacá. No período pandémico a taxa média de mortalidade nos municípios localizados sobre os 2000 msnm, é três vezes maior àqueles que se encontram por debaixo desta altura. As condições de pobreza e amontoamento acentuaram a letalidade da pandemia, sendo ineficientes as ações das direções de higiene para enfrenta-la. As juntas de socorros e a Junta Patriótica de Sanidade, são as únicas que realizam ações efetivas.

La encefalitis letárgica de von Economo y la pandemia de la gripe española en Bogotá y Medellín: reseña histórica cien años después

La encefalitis letárgica de von Economo es un trastorno neuropsiquiátrico de posible origen autoinmunitario, en el cual se afectan los ganglios basales. Esta reacción puede ocurrir luego de una infección aguda por diversos agentes virales o bacterianos. Dado que aparece cuando ya se ha resuelto el cuadro agudo, se ha propuesto el mecanismo del mimetismo molecular para explicar la lesión autoinmunitaria. Se han reportado diversos casos a lo largo del tiempo, pero fue con la pandemia de influenza de 1918, conocida como la gripe española, que la encefalitis letárgica alcanzó niveles de epidemia, con casos reportados hasta 1923 en diversos países. La pandemia de la gripe española se extendió a Colombia durante los últimos meses de 1918 y afectó varias ciudades, principalmente Bogotá, donde se reportó el mayor número de enfermos y muertos. Con este trabajo se busca rememorar, cien años después, el ingreso de la gripe española a nuestro país y sus principales complicaciones, entre las que se describieron algunos casos de encefalitis letárgica.

Von Economo's encephalitis is a neuropsychiatric disorder of possible autoimmune origin, which affects basal ganglia. This reaction may occur secondary to infection by different viral or bacterial agents. Given that it appears after the acute episode has disappeared, molecular mimetism has been proposed to explain the autoimmune lesion. Several cases have been reported through time, but it was with the 1918 flu pandemic, known as the Spanish flu, that lethargic encephalitis reached epidemic levels with cases reported until 1923 in various countries. The Spanish flu pandemic appeared in Colombia at the end of 1918 in several cities but it affected especially Bogotá where the highest number of patients and deaths was reported. Our purpose with the present work was to commemorate the arrival of the Spanish flu to our country after one hundred years, as well as to reflect on its main complications, which included some lethargic encepahilitis cases.

A cien años de la gripe "española / One hundred years after the "Spanish" flu

La pandemia de gripe "española", de la que se cumplen 100 años, es considerada la más devastadora de la historia. Se estima que afectó a un tercio de la población mundial, y más del 2.5% de los enfermos murieron. Esta pandemia se presentó en dos oleadas principales, en 1918 y 1919, y la morbimortalidad por edades tuvo una curva en W. En general, la muerte no ocurría como consecuencia directa de la gripe, sino por bronconeumonías bacterianas, para las que se carecía de tratamiento. Hubo, además, una mayor mortalidad en enfermos con tuberculosis preexistente con respecto al resto de los afectados de influenza. En Argentina la epidemia también se presentó en dos oleadas principales, con amplias variaciones en la mortalidad por regiones. El tratamiento disponible incluía dieta, antisepsia de garganta, valerianato de quinina, salicilato, codeína para la tos y aceite alcanforado. También se aplicaban primitivas vacunas y sueros anti-neumococos. Con la disponibilidad de la secuencia de ARN completa del genoma del virus de la influenza 1918 ha sido posible ensamblar, mediante genética inversa, partículas virales semejantes a las de la pandemia mortal. El virus reconstituido demostró ser extraordinariamente virulento para ratones. En la actualidad, la vacunación contra la gripe estacional reduce el riesgo de otra pandemia, pero por el momento no puede eliminarlo. El desarrollo de vacunas "universales" contra la gripe, que confieran inmunidad confiable y duradera, podrá evitar en el futuro su propagación mundial.

The "Spanish" flu pandemic, which occurred a century ago, is considered the most devastating in human history. An estimated one third of world population fell ill with flu and more than 2.5% of them died. The course of the epidemic had two main waves (1918 and 1919) and showed an unusual W-shaped morbidity/mortality distribution. Death was not a direct outcome of flu itself but rather a consequence of secondary bacterial bronchopneumonia, for which antibiotics had not yet been discovered. Pre-existing pulmonary tuberculosis was also accountable for increased flu death rates during the pandemic. As it happened in Europe, in Argentina the epidemic had two main waves, with ample variation in mortality by region. Available treatment at the time included diet, throat antiseptic rinses, low doses of quinine valerianate, salicylates, codeine as a cough suppressant, and camphor oil. Primitive anti-pneumococcal vaccines and immune sera were also applied. Upon the disclosure of the whole RNA sequence of the 1918 influenza virus genome, by means of reverse genetics it was possible to assemble viral particles resembling those of the deadly pandemic. The reconstituted virus proved to be extraordinarily virulent for mice. Current seasonal flu vaccines help to reduce, but not to abolish, the risk of another pandemic. The ongoing development of "universal" vaccines against influenza conferring reliable and long-lasting immunity may prevent its global spread in the future.

A review on the preparedness plans on influenza pandemics, by WHO and China: the current status and development / 中华流行病学杂志

Every influenza pandemic in history would end up with disastrous outcomes on mankind,of which the most notorious one was the "Spanish flu" pandemic in 1918.In the past century,with advanced knowledge on influenza viruses,laboratory technologies and surveillance methods,human beings were not as helpless when facing the influenza pandemic.In order to control the outbreaks and reducing the negative impacts,programs as:setting up and improving the influenza pandemic preparedness and response plan were recognized as important issues on early detection or prompt warning of any influenza virus strain that might lead to potential pandemics.The scheduled and planned control measures towards the pandemic preparedness and response plan had been considered of key importance in mitigating the peak of pandemic or controlling the transmission of virus.Since the "1918 influenza pandemic",we had reviewed the evolution and development of plans regarding the preparedness and response on influenza pandemic issued by both WHO and China.We also emphasized on the variety of strategies which were linked to the preparedness and response at different historical stages,to provide reference for the pandemic preparedness of the disease,in the future.

History of influenza pandemics in China during the past century / 中华流行病学杂志

Five influenza pandemics had occurred during the past century (1918 "Spanish flu",1957 "Asian flu",1968 "Hong Kong flu",1977 "Russian flu" and 2009 H1N1 Pandemic),accounting for hundreds of millions of people infected and tens of millions dead.China was influenced by all the five pandemics,and three of them (1957 "Asian flu",1968 "Hong Kong flu" and 1977 "Russian flu") were originated from China.The pandemics triggered the establishment of public health agencies and influenza surveillance capacities.In addition,more resources were allocated to influenza-related research,prevention and control.As a leader in the field of influenza,China should further strengthen its pandemic preparedness and response to contribute to global health.

An overview on the history of global influenza pandemics / 中华流行病学杂志

During the past 100 years,there had been four global pandemics on influenza that had greatly influenced the health and life of the people.This article summarized the features,experiences and lessons learned on these four influenza pandemics so as to prepare related measures targeting the possible pandemics/epidemics in the foreseeable future,in China.

Influenza viruses: Public health perspective / 医学研究生学报

Influenza viruses belong to four genera of the Orthomyxoviridae: A, B, C and D. Compared with influenza B, C and D viruses, influenza A virus has a characteristic with varied hosts, numerous serotypes and frequent cross-species transmission. Influenza A virus also is an important zoonotic pathogen which can cause a new human influenza pandemic. The impact of influenza virus on human health and public health can be divided into three levels: influenza pandemic, seasonal influenza and human infection with animal influenza virus. In view of the serious harm of influenza virus to human and animal health and its complex ecosystem, influenza virus has been a hotspot in the field of life science and public health. From the perspective of public health, this paper reviews the etiological research fields and its research progress closely related to influenza prevention and control, including seasonal influenza virus surveillance, influenza virus ecology, broad-spectrum neutralizing antibodies and universal vaccines, as well as the etiological assessment of influenza pandemic risk.

A review on the preparedness plans on influenza pandemics, by WHO and China: the current status and development / 中华流行病学杂志

Every influenza pandemic in history would end up with disastrous outcomes on mankind,of which the most notorious one was the "Spanish flu" pandemic in 1918.In the past century,with advanced knowledge on influenza viruses,laboratory technologies and surveillance methods,human beings were not as helpless when facing the influenza pandemic.In order to control the outbreaks and reducing the negative impacts,programs as:setting up and improving the influenza pandemic preparedness and response plan were recognized as important issues on early detection or prompt warning of any influenza virus strain that might lead to potential pandemics.The scheduled and planned control measures towards the pandemic preparedness and response plan had been considered of key importance in mitigating the peak of pandemic or controlling the transmission of virus.Since the "1918 influenza pandemic",we had reviewed the evolution and development of plans regarding the preparedness and response on influenza pandemic issued by both WHO and China.We also emphasized on the variety of strategies which were linked to the preparedness and response at different historical stages,to provide reference for the pandemic preparedness of the disease,in the future.

History of influenza pandemics in China during the past century / 中华流行病学杂志

Five influenza pandemics had occurred during the past century (1918 "Spanish flu",1957 "Asian flu",1968 "Hong Kong flu",1977 "Russian flu" and 2009 H1N1 Pandemic),accounting for hundreds of millions of people infected and tens of millions dead.China was influenced by all the five pandemics,and three of them (1957 "Asian flu",1968 "Hong Kong flu" and 1977 "Russian flu") were originated from China.The pandemics triggered the establishment of public health agencies and influenza surveillance capacities.In addition,more resources were allocated to influenza-related research,prevention and control.As a leader in the field of influenza,China should further strengthen its pandemic preparedness and response to contribute to global health.

An overview on the history of global influenza pandemics / 中华流行病学杂志

During the past 100 years,there had been four global pandemics on influenza that had greatly influenced the health and life of the people.This article summarized the features,experiences and lessons learned on these four influenza pandemics so as to prepare related measures targeting the possible pandemics/epidemics in the foreseeable future,in China.

Risk Communication and Generic Preparedness: From Agent-based to Action-based Planning - A Conceptual Framework.

Responses to recent infectious disease outbreaks, such as to Influenza Pandemic 2009 and the on-going Ebola outbreak in West Africa, reveal the need for new and strengthened approaches to risk communication and governance. The article argues for a fundamental re-conceptualisation of current approaches to risk communication, preparedness planning and response. It calls for a reframing of the way we currently identify and respond to outbreaks around a set of core behaviour-based response patterns. This new model moves away from the current risk communication focus on a plethora of agent-specific threats to five generic response patterns that are based on socially relevant response activities such as 1) controlling vectors, 2) enhancing hygiene, 3) isolation of the sick, 4) protection of the well, and 5) systemic protection of people and their environments. Emphasis is placed on gaining relevant insights into the context specific needs of different communities related to these five patterns. Governance structures are then built and evaluated based on their capacity to collect, communicate, share and prepare the public to take appropriate action related to the five different patterns before, during and after an event. Reframing risk communication and preparedness approaches around a better understanding of the determinants of these general behavioural patterns in infectious control could strengthen infection control literacy, response competence and build resilience of both individuals and health systems to address future epidemics, pandemics and other public health threats.

Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 in India: Duration of virus shedding in patients under antiviral treatment.

Background: National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), Delhi, is a national nodal centre for surveillance of pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) in India. The present study was undertaken to see the period of infectivity in positive cases undergoing antiviral therapy. Objective: To assess the duration of virus shedding by real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) in some of the positive patients taking Oseltamivir treatment. Materials and Methods: Clinical samples (throat swabs, nasal swabs and nasopharyngeal swabs) collected by the clinicians from patients quarantined in government hospitals in different parts of India are being sent to the designated reference laboratory at Delhi for screening presence of pandemic Influenza virus. The samples are tested by Real-Time PCR using CDC recommended reagents and protocol for confirmation of the H1N1 novel influenza virus. In 150 of the positive cases, we requested the clinicians to send samples for 5 consecutive days after administration of antiviral therapy, to see the trend of therapy response on viral shedding. Samples for more than 5 days were received from patients till they showed no amplification for any of the three target genes (Influenza A, Swine Influenza A or Swine H1). Results and Conclusion: In 99.33% (149/150) cases, the influenza infection resolved within 10 days. Sixty-four percent (96/150) of the positive patients turned negative within 5 days of the start of antiviral treatment. Only one patient belonging to high risk group showed prolonged virus shedding (19 days).

Oseltamivir compounding in the hospital pharmacy during the (H1N1) influenza pandemic

AIMS: Pandemics impose large demands on the health care system. The supply of appropriate chemotherapeutic agents, namely oseltamivir solution, presented a serious challenge in the recent influenza pandemic. This study reports on the rational series of pharmacotechnical steps that were followed to appropriately handle bulk oseltamivir powder to meet the increased demand. METHODS: During a six-week period in August and September of 2009, a task force was created in the Central Pharmacy of Hospital das Clínicas to convert imported oseltamivir phosphate into ready-to-use solution for utilization by physicians and public health authorities. The protocol included dissolution, physico-chemical tests and the bottling of a liquid microdose formulation for emergency room and outpatient dispensing with adequate quality control during all phases. RESULTS: The successful production routine was based on a specially designed flowchart according to which a batch of 33210 g of oseltamivir powder was converted into 32175 solution units during the aforementioned period with a net loss of only 2.6 percent. The end products were bottles containing 50 ml of 15 mg/mL oseltamivir solution. The measured concentration was stable and accurate (97.5 percent - 102.0 percent of the nominal value). The drug was prescribed as both a prophylactic and therapeutic agent. DISCUSSION: Hospital pharmacies are conventionally engaged in the manipulation of medical prescriptions and specialty drugs. They are generally responsible for only small-scale equipment used for manufacturing and quality-control procedures. The compounding of oseltamivir was a unique effort dictated by exceptional circumstances. CONCLUSION: The shortage of oseltamivir solution for clinical use was solved by emergency operationalization of a semi-industrial process in which bulk powder was converted into practical vials for prompt delivery.